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WASHINGTON HIGH SCHOOL 



GUIDE 



TO THE STUDENT IN 



BOTANY. 



' JAN 11 1888 >e 



j/ 



By EDWARD S. BURGESS, A. M., 
Instructor in Charge, 



\ 



Copyright, 1887, by Edward S. Burgess. 
All Rights Reserved. 



PHILADELPHIA ; 

Dunlap & Clarke, Printers 
819-821 Filbert Street, 



ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

I. Method of Study 5 

II. Required Work 8 

III. Special Objects Attained 9 

IV. Blank-Books Required 10 

V. Botanical Facilities Offered 10 

A. The Laboratory 10 

B. The Propagating- Room 11 

C. Scientific Library 11 

D. Scientific Periodicals 13 

VI. Outlines of Lectures 13 

Series I. Flowers and their Families 14 

Series II. General Topics 16 

Series III. The Plant Cell 19 

Series IV. Flo werless Plants : 20 

V I L Outline of Laboratory Work 21 

A. General Plan 21 

B. Topics of Histological Study 21 

C. Directions for using the Microscope 23 

D. Order for a Plant in Detail 23 

E. Order for a Single Part in Detail 24 

F. Directions in Drawing Plants 25 

VIII. Outline for Description Papers 25 

IX. Outline for Observation Papers 26 

* Autumnal Series 26 

** Winter Series 31 

*** Spring Series 36 

X. How to make an Excursion Profitable 40 

XL Outline for the Year's Work ..... ,. 42 

3 



The present work is intended for the use of students in the 
Washington High School, to supply them with the outlines 
of their course in Botany, and to furnish directions for 
modes of procedure in laboratory work and in original in- 
vestigation. It is also intended to include such information 
regarding the methods followed as will answer the inquiries 
of parents and others interested. A portion of the matter 
contained is entirely new ; another portion has been for 
four years in use in the school as a Syllabus of the Botanical 
Course, and is now entirely rewritten, with such adaptations 
as have been suggested by experience. 



SYLLABUS 

OF THE 

COURSE IN BOTANY, 

WASHINGTON HIGH SCHOOL, 
1887-1888. 



I. Method of Study. 



Botany in the Washington High School is made a study of 
the third year. The student's previous scientific work has 
been in his first year a General Elementary Course, includ- 
ing Physiology, Physical Geography and Geology, and in 
his second year a course in Physics, or, if he chooses, in 
Chemistry. Botany follows as the new science of the third 
year ; its study is made elective. 

The method pursued in the study of Botany is primarily 
objective, and based upon the actual examination of the 
appropriate material. The aim of the course is double — to 
promote habits of close observation and to secure knowledge 
of the life of plants. It is intended not merely nor princi- 
pally to impart instruction, but rather to lead the student on 
to learn from Nature direct. Use of text-books as a sum- 
mary and for reference is considered the appropriate supple- 
ment. Lectures are added as a further supplement, accom- 
panied by examination of specimens and illustrated by dia- 
grams. Field-work is esteemed of vital importance, especially 
in promoting familiarity with habitats and associations of 

5 



6 

plants. This is at times continued during the winter by 
studies at the Botanical Gardens. There, by kindness of the 
Superintendent, Mr. W. K. Smith, the Botanical Lecture- 
room, built for this purpose with the advice of Professor Asa 
Gray, of Cambridge, has been placed at the disposal of the 
Department of Botany for inspection of plants and delivery 
of lectures. In this way the student's knowledge is extended 
to some prominent features of tropical vegetation. 

Especial emphasis is laid on the requirement of original 
work. Each student studies successively the development of 
seeds, buds, leaves and flowers ; preparing description and 
drawings. Besides this, each student is also given a succession 
of more generalized topics for investigation. Attention is 
directed to the breadth of this field of exploration and the 
littleness of that already known. The results of the original 
work done are presented in a series of " Observation Papers," 
prepared from notes and figures taken at the time of obser- 
vation. Each paper is read before the class and is retained 
by the laboratory. 

Ordinary sessions of the various classes are opened by 
reports from the class of objects seen or work done, exhibition 
of specimens brought in, questions from the class in regard to 
work, and questions to the class in review. In order to keep 
in mind the relation of flowers to thought, an extract from 
literature regarding plants is daily placed on the blackboard 
and copied by the class. The main part of the hour is then 
devoted either to examination of specimens, or to lecture, 
recitation (from text-book or lecture) or reading of papers. 
For the foregoing purposes each class meets four days in the 
week, with sessions of fifty minutes. Each student devotes 
also at least one hour to laboratory work every week. 

The classes are formed in September, and are then given 
leaves from which to study venation. Flowers are used from 



the first, or nearly the first ; the first flowers ordinarily selec- 
ted being the Soapwort, Morning Glory and Pokeberry. From 
careful examination of the parts of these flowers the leading 
characters of Polypetalous, Monopetalous and Apetalous Ex- 
ogens are learned, with daily explanation of terms as needed. 
Other flowers follow, and acquaintance with a number of fam- 
ilies is at once secured, among them the Composite, which is 
usually taken up the third or fourth week. Excursions to 
the woods .and riversides near the city are taken as opportunity 
offers. Each student hands in a description of each plant 
studied. As specimens for analysis become fewer, text-book 
study is increased, and is nearly finished by the end of Decem- 
ber. Material for the illustration of this study has been col- 
lected continually throughout the preceding weeks, forming 
an important object in fall excursions. Students have mean- 
time completed the first or autumn series of observation 
papers, and their reading follows, while excursions in small 
companies to the Botanical Gardens now replace those taken 
to outlying districts. Specimens illustrating fruits, buds, 
grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi, lichens, algae, and minor subjects 
have been collected in quantity during the fall, and are now 
to be brought in succession into study, with accompanying 
lectures. These subjects occupy the remaining sessions till 
early spring. With them there is joined a winter series of 
observation papers, mainly concerned with buds and branches ; 
and a series of exercises follows by which the student is taught 
how to make the best use of botanical works and periodicals. 
With the coming of spring the analysis and study of the pha> 
nogams again engrosses attention. Excursions to the woods 
are renewed, the spring series of observation papers, mainly 
concerned with flowers, is begun, and the class is actively en- 
gaged in enlarging the High School Herbarium. Work is 
finished about the first week of June, closing with lectures 



8 

upon some of the leading generalizations of the science. A 
tabulated synopsis of the work of the year is given page 42 . 

II. Eequired Work. 

1. Practical Exercises in the Examination and Analysis of 

Plants. Forty hours. 

To include, besides analysis, General Objective 
Work, or the study of specimens with a view to 
deduction of the general principles of Botany. 

2. Gray's Lessons and Manual. Forty hours. 

A number of copies of Ward's " Flora of the Dis- 
trict of Columbia " will be loaned to students as 
further aids to study. 

3. Lectures (supplementary to the text-book, and upon Inter- 

nal Structure and Cryptogams). Forty hours. 
See Outlines of Lecture Topics, page 13. 

4. Laboratory Work (devoted to exercises in drawing and de- 

scribing the details of plant structure, with and with- 
out the microscope). Twenty hours. 

See Outlines for Laboratory Work, page 21. 

5. Studies at the U. S. Botanical Gardens and in Excursions. 

Ten hours. 

See page 40. 

6. Preparation of 100 Description Papers, (each stating the 

characteristic external features of some plant analyzed). 
To be entered in a blank book according to Outline, 
page 25. 

7. Preparation of 3 Observation Papers, (stating results of 

original observation on some general topic assigned). 
See Outlines for Observation Papers, page 26. 

8. Preparation of a Condensed Summary of Structural Botany. 

9. Development Studies; one each on Seeds, Buds, Leaves; 



9 

Flowers ; report to describe, 1st, the object and its 
parts (with drawings) ; 2d, its successive stages of de- 
velopment. 

III. Special Objects Obtained by the Foregoing 
Kequired Work. 

Object of Observation Papers. 

To cultivate independent and intelligent observation of 
general facts regarding plants. 
Object of Description Papers. 

To cultivate close observation of particular kinds of 
plants. 
Object of Laboratory Work. 

1. To secure knowledge of Methods of Work. 

2. To secure thorough acquaintance with the structure 
of the component parts of a plant. 

Object of Analysis of Plants. 

To secure acquaintance with plants which are— r 

1. Most common, 

2. Most important, [ Characteristics of the District. 

3. Most peculiar, 

4. Types of Orders. 

Object of Summaries of Work Done. 

To condense the leading facts of Botany in a form most 
easily read and remembered. 
Object of Text-book Work. 

To secure proper correlation of subjects studied, and 
familiarity with accepted modes of stating results. 
Object of Excursions. 

To secure knowledge of habitats and the growing ap- 
pearance of plants ; and to extend the range of col- 
lection and observation. 



10 



IV. Blank Books Required-. 

I. For Notes, should contain at least four quires, with 
stiff cover bearing the student's name and section. It should 
be arranged as follows : 

a. Pages 1-14. Summary of Work Done. 

b. " 15-40. Drawings and other Laboratory Work. 

c. " 40-end. Notes on Lectures. 

II. For Descriptions, should be as above described, having 
one description only upon a page, with the common name of 
the plant conspicuously placed at the top ; all the descriptions 
to be numbered, and an index placed at the end of the book. 
See page 25. 

V. Botanical Facilities Offered. 

A. The Laboratory, in which classes assemble, seats forty 
students, and is provided, besides usual furnishings for a 
school-room, with four long tables for class-work, a pre^s and 
drying-frame, sink in several compartments, shelving, &e. 
Among others are the following special appliances : 

a. Chest of twenty drawers containing collections of fruits, 
capsules, dried flowers and leaves, examples of stems, roots, 
buds, mosses, fungi, lichens, &c. 

b. Microscope-table, seating five for work with instruments, 
and provided with twelve drawers for accessories. 

c. Glass Case of Specimens of Ferns, &c, of the Coal Period. 

d. Glass Case containing Laboratory Herbarium (beg :n 
March, 1883, and intended to represent the District Flora, 
with the plan of showing all principal stages and forms of 
each plant). 

6. Glass Case containing Wood Sections presented by kind- 
ness of Dr. Geo. Vasey, through favor of the Agricultural 
Department. 



11 

/. Glass Case containing Zoological Specimens in Jars, col- 
lected by students. 

g. Collection of Marine Invertebrates, by favor of the 
Smithsonian Institution. In jars. 

h. Collection of Lepidoptera and other Insects of the 
District of Columbia, in cases, collected by students. 

i. 100 Charts placed upon the walls or hung from wires, 
illustrating the Structure of Plants; the work of students. 

j. Charts placed upon the walls to illustrate forms of leaves ; 
other sets to illustrate the Maples and other Ornamental 
Trees of Washington ; another set of 40 varieties of Palms ; 
(all the above consisting of leaves pasted upon manilla 
paper). 

k. Crayon picture of Joseph Henry (by kindness of the 
artist, Henry Ulke), and framed engravings of Darwin and 
Humboldt (by kindness of Dr. Wm. Bernhardt). 

/. Index to Scientific Papers contained in the Smithsonian 
Annual Eeports, 1863 to 1881, arranged by authors ; made by 
students. 

m. Duplicate of the above index, arranged by subjects, and 
extended to other scientific publications of the Government 
contained in the Library. 

B. Propagating Boom. 

A room in the basement, having south and east windows, 
has been used for this purpose, and furnished with shelving 
for pots and with growing-boxes. The plan followed is to 
secure here a supply of plants of different stages of growth 
for use in illustration, especially in the winter, and to be trans- 
ferred to the Laboratory as desired. 

C. Scientific Library. 

Besides works on general science in the main Library, the 
Branch Library, in the Botanical Laboratory, contains many 



12 

Government Reports on scientific subjects, and many works 
upon Botany and Zoology, the property of the High 
School. These can be drawn by the student on leaving his 
receipt. The following works on Botanical subjects are espe- 
cially recommended to the notice of classes : 

Botanies by Sachs, Bessey ( Larger), Macloskie, Koehler, 
McNab, Miss Youmans, Gray (Structural), Goodale 
(Physiological), Chapman, (Southern). 

Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom. 

Rhind's Vegetable Kingdom. 

Sargent's Woods of the United States. 

Hervey's Sea Mosses. 

Underwood's Native Ferns. 

Bailey's Talks Afield. 

Figuier's Vegetable World. 

Twining's Plant World. 

Darwin's Works : and Life, by Grant Allen. 

Darwiniana, by Professor Asa Gray. 
Also, Beale's How to Work with the Microscope. 

Carpenter's The Microscope. 

Lankester's The Microscope. 
Also, among books loaned to the laboratory by the in- 
structor in charge, to be drawn by students in the previous 
manner : 

Bower and Vines' Practical Botany. 

Vines' Physiology of Plants. 

De Bary's Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and 
Ferns. 

Gray's Synoptical Flora of North America." 

De Candolle's Origin of Cultivated Plants. 

Gray's Botanical Text-book. 

Gray's School and Field Book (containing Garden Plants). 

Gray's Manual (containing Mosses and Hepaticag). 



13 

Lesquereux and James' Mosses. 

Underwood's Hepaticae. 

Farlow's Algae of New England ('oast. 

Wood's Algae, Fresh-water. 

Wolle's Desmids ; and Alga?. 

Van Heurck's Diatoms. 

Tnckerman's Lichens. 

Cooke's Ponds and Ditches. 

Arthur, Barnes and Coulter's Plant Dissection. 

Goodale's Vegetable Histology. 

Quekett's The Microscope. 

D. Scientific Periodicals. 

Bound volumes of the "American Naturalist" and two of 
" Nature" are to be found by the student in the Laboratory 
Library. Files of current scientific publications are kept 
upon a special table in the laboratory, and may be drawn out 
by receipt. They include, the property of the school, 

The Popular Science Monthly and The American Me- 
teorological Journal. 
Also, loaned by the instructor, for use of students, 

The American Naturalist. 

Science. 

Botanical Gazette. 

Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 

American Monthly Microscopical Journal. 

Circulars of the Johns Hopkins University. 

Publications of Washington Scientific Societies. 

VI. Outlines of Lectures. 

The lectures outlined below, are intended to secure the 
student's attention to some important subjects not otherwise 
sufficiently noticed. The lectures are from thirty to fifty 



14 

minutes each ; illustrated by diagrams ; each important state- 
ment and each diagram to be contained in the student's note- 
books, which are frequently examined, and for which credits 
are given based on clear and faithful arrangement. 

Series I. — Flowers and their Families. 

1. The Typical Flower. 

a. Types ; b, formula and diagram ; c, type of calyx ; 
c/, of corolla; e, fragrance; /, color; g, morpho- 
logical transitions. 

2. Uses of Flowers. 

a. Uses protective ; 6, uses attractive ; c, in production 
of perfumes ; d, as food ; e 3 for medicines ; /, as 
dye-stuffs ; g, other commercial uses ; artificial 
flowers ; h, effect of flowers upon the mind. 

3. Influence of Flowers upon Literature. 

a. Their place in prose; the Essayists; b, their place 
among the Novelists; c, their place in prose in 
general; d, in poetry; e, as sources of imagery; /. 
as types of beauty ; g, as affecting different nations ; 
h, associations connected with flowers ; i, favorite 
flowers of the poets. 

4. Palms. 

a. Structure of stem ; b, leaves ; c, flowering ; d, fruit ; 
e, habits ; /, uses. 

5. Grasses. 

a Characters; 6, comparison of rushes and sedges in 
stem ; c, in leaf; d, in fruit; e, characters of each 
compared ; /, uses of each. 

6. Lilies. 

a. Types of Endogens; b, distinctions from related 
families ; c, importance ; d, prominent species. 

7. Eoses. 



15 

o. Types of Exogens; b, distinctions from related fami- 
lies; c, importance of the Kose family; d, promi- 
nent species. 
8. Leguminous Plants. 

a. Characteristics ; b, related families ; c, importance • 

d, prominent species. 

5. The Buttercup Family. (Headings as in 8.) 

6. The Composite Family. do. 

7. The Heath Family. do. 

8. Aroids. do. 

9. Water-lilies. do. 

10. Pines. do. 

11. Catkin-bearing Trees. 

a. Catkins ; b, families producing them j. c, upon shrubs. 

12. Cacti and Fleshy Plants. 

a. Cactus stems ; b, fleshy stems of Agave and Aloes ; 
c, of Impatiens and other local plants ; d, of sea- 
shore plants; e, other fleshy parts of plants; 
/, value of succulence. 

13. Water Plants. 

a. Submerged stems ; 6, leaves ; c, roots in water ; d, 
flowers and fruit ; e, families of water-plants ; / 
water-plants in other families ; g, general structure 
of water-plants. 

14. Orchids. 

a. Structure in general; b, roots; c, flowers; d, fertili- 
zation ; e, invitation of insects ; /, position among 
plants. 

15. Trees and Shrubbery of Washington. 

a. Native trees along the Potomac ; b, upon the hills • 
c, shade-trees of the streets ; d, trees in the parks ; 

e, in conservatories; /, shrubbery, cultivated; g, 
native. 



16 

Series II. — General Topics. 
1G. Buds. 

a. Development; Z>, conditions of bud formation ; c, ad- 
ventitious buds; d, budding; e, grafting; /, bulb- 
lets ; g, propagation by buds versus seeds. 
17. Adventitious Roots. 

a. To supply air ; 6, to start cuttings ; c, replacing true 
root ; d, from injured stem. 
18 Plant Hairs. 

a. Unicellular ; b, jointed ; c, feathery ; d, stellate ; 
e, glandular; /, stinging; g, prickles; h, sensitive. 

19. Fruit. 

a. From calyx ; b, receptacle ; c, peduncle ; d, com- 
pound ; e, time of ripening ; /, chemical changes ; 
g, germination of indehiscent fruits. 

20. Seeds. " 

a. Self-sowing; b, self-covering; c, wind-borne ; d, ani- 
mal-borne; e, rolling; /, sculpture; g, develop- 
ment, density, germinating power ; h, productive- 
ness. 
Vitality of Seeds. 

Cases alleged from tertiary beds ; from Egypt, mum- 
mies, tombs, Athens ; cases within modern times ; 
experiments ; conditions required ; conclusion. 

21. Plant Galls. 

a Characters in common ; b, gall makers ; c, inhabit- 
ants; d, alternation of generations; e, unlimited 
growth ; /, internal galls ; g, compound ; h, hy- 
pertrophy ; i, swelling of petioles ; j, bedeguar ; 
k, double galls ; /, comparison of leaf-miners, leaf- 
rollers, and "jumping seeds." 

22. Distribution of Plants. 

a. Influence of temperature, soil, light, climate ; 6, rem- 



17 

nants of different distribution ; c, 
distribution ; " plants cultivated against man's 
will;" d s distribution by currents, birds; e, an- 
cient and modern migrations ; /, cosmopolitan 
plants ; g, acclimation. 

23. Germs aud Dust. 

a. Dust as carrier of germs ; b, their characters ; c, bac- 
teria ; d, in decay ; e, in disease ; antiseptics ; /, 
Bacillus, characters ; g, beer-yeast ; h, permanence. 

24. Growth. 

a. Effect of heat on chlorophyll ; 6, on annular growth ; 
c, of light ; d, blanching ; e, sensitive leaves. 

25. Plant Chemistry. 

a. Components of plant ; b, sources ; c. respiration ; d, 
chlorophyll action ; e, starch ; /, sugar ; g, albu- 
men ; h, tea, coffee, &c. 

26. Plant Mathematics. 

(t. Decussate leaves ; b, cycles ; c, angular divergence ; d, 

phyllotaxy, systems ; e, fundamental and secondary 

spirals ; /, deviations ; g, flower in 5's, 3's, 4's, &c. 

27. Fertilization. 

a, Exhausting energy ; b, heat ; c, rest required ; d y 
time fixed, influences ; e, pollen, characters ; f, 
changes on the stigma ; g, tubes developed ; h, em- 
bryo and sac. 

28. Cross Fertilization. 

a. Fertilization of Primula; 6, Clerodendron ; c, Bar- 
berry; c?, Kalmia ; e, Aristolochia ; /, Leguminosse; 
g, Yucca ; h, Pansy ; i, action of thrips ; j, bees ; 
k, butterflies and moths ; I, proterogyny ; proter- 
andry ; homogonous, heterogonous, dimorphous, 
trimorphous, monoecious, dioecious, flowers; m, 
wind -fertilized flowers ; n, flowers alluring insects. 



18 

29. Self Fertilization. 

a. Accidental ; b, subsidiary ; c, cleistogamous. 

30. Adaptations to Environment. 

a. To water ; 6, wind ; c, soil ; d, sand ; e, shortened 
seasons ; /, changed climate ; g, crowding ; h, com- 
petition ; *, leaf-structure, form, &c. 

31. Flowers Repelling Insects. 

a. Why injurious ; b, means of defence ; c, downward 

hairs ; d, other visitors. 
Flowers Capturing Insects. 

a. Utricularia. characters, habits ; 6, Dionam ; c, Sar- 

racenia ; d, Darlingtonia. 
e. Flowers Digesting Insects ; Nepenthes, characters; 

habits ; /, Drosera ; g, Pinguicula ; h, others. 

33. Relations of Animals to Plants. 

a. Interdependence ; b, resemblances, breathing ; c, di- 
gestion ; d, reproduction ; e, protoplasmic and 
chemical composition; /, starch and sugar; g, 
flexor cords ; h, motion ; i, dependence on oxy- 
gen ; j, ability to take animal food ; k, differences. 

34. Motion in Plants. 

a. In growth ; b y sweep of tendrils ; c, due to light ; c?, to 
heat ; e, hygroscopic motions ; /, sudden bloom- 
ing ; g, sensitive stamens, leaves, &c. 

35. Nature in Literature. 

a. Trees and other objects deified ; 6, general influences 
of nature; c, upon different peoples ; d, nature to 
the Greek ; e, to the English ; f, attitude of mo- 
dern literature toward nature ; g, Wordsworth ; h, 
Emerson ; i, nature to other poets. 



19 



Series III.— The Plant Cell. 

36. Protoplasm. 

a. Compared in monera, in algae ; 6, characters ; c, 
history. 

37. Cell Walls. 

a. Form ; 6, layers ; c, sculpturing : d, chemical changes ; 
e, growth of spirals ; /, cellulose. 

38. Cell Development. 

a. Terminal and uniform ; 6, terminal and attenuated ; 
c, radiating ; d, branching ; e, intercalary ; / ; intus- 
susception ; g, unicellular plants ; coenobia ; k, cell- 
rows ; i, cell-surfaces, membranes. 

39. Cell Contents. 

a. Protoplasm ; b, nucleus : c, nucleolus , d, primordial ; 
utricle ; e, sap ; /, starch ; g, chlorophyll ; endo- 
chrome; h, miscellanea. 

40. Cell Movements. 

a. Movements of naked protoplasm; amoeboid (rnyxo- 
mycetes) ; 6, streaming (myxomycetes) : c, gliding 
(diatoms, Oscillaria) ; d, movements of enclosed 
protoplasm ; circulation, (Tradescantia, Gourds) ; 
e, rotation (Chara) ; /, cyclosis (Desmids, closte- 
rium) : g, Erownian movement; h, movement by 

cilia ; i, hygroscopic movements. 

41. Cell Production. 

a, Multiplication by buds ; b, by fission ; c, segmental 
division ; d, free cell formation ; e, rejuvenescence ; 
/, reproduction by conjugation; g, by fertilization, 
(with antheridia) ; h, by pollination. 

42. Cell Tissues. 

a. Union of cells ; b, bordered pits, sieve and ladder 
cells ; c, kinds of tissues, parenchyma, palisade, &c. 



20 

Series IV. — Flowerless Plants. 

43. Ferns. 

a. Characters ; 6, geological history ; c, association with 
coal ; d, fruit-dots, sporangia, spores : e, prothal- 
liura, antheridia, archegonia. 

44. The Fern Allies. 

a. Equisetum ; 6, Calamites ; c, Yv T ater-ferns ; d, Grape- 
ferns; e, Lycopodium : Selaginella ; Lepidoden- 
dron; Sigillaria. 

45. Mosses. 

a. Characters, root ; 6, stem ; c, leaves ; d, pedicel ; e, 
capsule; /, calyptra (cap), operculum (lid), peris- 
tome (teeth); g, the "flowers of mosses;" para- 
physes. 

46. Hepaticse, 

a. Frondose Hepaticse; b, Foliaceous Hepatica?; c, ela- 
ters; d, gemmse. 

47. Lichens. 

a. Form ; b, habitat ; c, prominent species ; d, apothe- 
cia; e, gonidia; their origin. 

48. Fungi. 

a. Parasitism ; b, its consequences ; c, influence upon 
higher plants; d, mushrooms, gills, mycelium; 
e, rust, smut, mildew, mould ; /, bacteria. 

49. Algse. 

a. General character; forms; b, colors; c, habits; d, 
development ; e, marine algae ; /, fresh-water alga? ; 
g, diatoms ; h } desmids ; i, volvox and allies. 

50. Cryptogams. 

a. General character ; reproduction; b, development ; 
c, other comparisons with phanerogams ; c?, rela- 
tions to higher plants ; classifications. 



21 

VII. Outline of Labobatoby Work. 
A. General Plan. 

By the laboratory work here outlined, it is intended to se- 
cure acquaintance with methods of work, and with the struc- 
ture of the component parts of plants. It affords opportunity, 

1. To learn the preparation of plant specimens and 

appliances. 

2. To learn the use of the microscope. 

3. To study external structure in detail (Morphology) ; 

examining 

Germination, 

The Eoot, Stem, Leaf, Flower and Fruit, 

Fertilization. 

4. To study internal structure (Histology) ; see topics 

following. 

B. Topics of Histological Study. 
The laboratory has recently been well provided with mi- 
croscopes of its own, and the study of these topics had been 
made possible before by borrowing from gentlemen friendly 
to the cause of public instruction. The topics following are 
not offered as a complete series, but as a thoroughly practica- 
ble course, and one which has been tested by trial. The plan 
has been to select such subjects as combine importance with 
ease of manipulation. The material is supplied by the in- 
structor, who is present to direct and explain. 

* Cell-Formation. 

Colorless Unicellular Plant, 

(See " Practical Biology "), Yeast. 
Green Unicellular Plant, ( See 

"Practical Biology" and 

11 Plant Dissection"), Protococcus, 



22 

Ked Unicellular Plant, in 

Stratum, Palmella. 

Green Unicellular Plant, 

showing motion, internal, Desmids. 
Yellow-Brown Unicellular 

Plant, showing motion, 

external, Diatoms. 

Blue-Green Filamentous 

Plant, showing motion, 

external, Oscillaria. 

Green Filamentous Plant, 

(See "Plant-Dissection ") Spirogyra. 
Cell-Membrane, Porphyra ; or, Moss-leaf. 

Cell-Substance, Tetraspora. 

* * Spore-Formation. 
Conjugation, of Simple Cells, Desmids. 
Conjugation, of Filaments, Spirogyra. 
In Special Cells, CEdogonium. 

In Cystocarps, Red Sea-mosses (Floridese). 

In Apothecia, Lichens. 

In Capsules, Mosses. 

In Spore-cases, Ferns. 

* * * Tissues. 

Parenchyma, colorless, Pith of Sunflower and of Rushes. 

Parenchyma, with nucleus 

and protoplasm, Pond weed. 

Parenchyma, with starch- 
grains, Potato-tuber. 

Parenchyma, with chloro- 
phyll grains, Leaf of Moss (Fontinalis). 

Parenchyma, Epidermal 

Tissue and Stomata, Mignonette, Selaginella. 



23 

Parenchyma, section of leaf, Hyacinth. 
Wood-cells, Ked Cedar. 

Bast-cells, Linden. 

Spiral Ducts, Narcissus. 

C. Directions for Using the Microscope. 

I. Remove all dust with a handkerchief. 

II. Put Eye-piece and Objective in place. 

III. Obtain convenient position of tube. 

IV. Obtain light from mirror. 

V. Clean a slide thoroughly. 

VI. Place the object to be examined on the centre of the 

slide in a minute drop of water 

VII. Clean a cover-glass carefully, and place it on the 

object (to hold it in place and to flatten the water). 

VIII. Put the slide so arranged, on the stage, centering it 

over the aperture. 

IX. Fasten the slide with spring-clips (unless the stage is 

horizontal) . 

X. Focus the objective; use, 1st, the Coarse Adjustment 

(draw tube or rach and pinion) ; 2d, inspect ; 3d, 
use the Fine Adjustment. 

XI. Practice changing focus. 

XII. Practice changing light. 

XIII. Practice finding object. 

XIV. Practice moving object while in view. 

XV. Practice changing focus while in view. 

XVI. Practice changing diaphragm. 

XVII. Practice drawing object. 

D. Order of Parts in JExamining a Plant in detail, 

A. Boot. 

B. Stem, 



24 



C. Leaf. 

Petiole, Stipules, Bud, Spines, Tendrils, Haustoria. 

D. Flower. 

Sepals, Petals, Stamens (Filaments, Anthers), Pistils 
(Style, Stigma, Ovary [Ovules, Placenta.]). 

E. Fruit. 

Cells, Pericarp (Exocarp, Mesocarp, Endocarp) Seeds, 
Outer Coat, Inner Coat, Khaphe, Hilum, Chalaza, 
Embryo (Cotyledons, Plumule, Padicle), Albumen. 



as in petal of a single rose, rose-color. 
" " obovate. 



E. Order for Examining a Single Plant in detail 

Color, 

Outline, 

Division, 

Margin, 

Base, 

Apex, 

Surface, 

Substance, 

Venation, 

Direction, 

Insertion, 

Adhesion, 

Cohesion, 

Mutual Eelation — 

In the Bud, as in petal of a single rose, imbricated. 

In Maturity, " " wheel-shaped. 

In Age, " " deciduous. 

Figures : 

View from Above, flower, — , petal, . 

View from Side, flower, , petal, . 

Formula, in single rose, S 5 P 5 St + P + 

Diagram (showing all parts as by a cross-section through bud), 



undivided. 

entire. 

narrowed, sessile. 

rounded. 

smooth. 

delicate. 

free, fine, obscure. 

horizontal. 

on a disk on the calyx. 



into a disk below. 



25 

F. Directions in Drawing Plants. 

A. Draw, 

1st, a View from Above, ^ In case of leaf, flower or part 

2d, a Side View, ( of flower. 

3d, a diagram of arrangement (if a flower). 

B. Drawing the object as seen under the Microscope, draw a 

View — 

1st. Of Surface, with naked eye or low power ; 2d, with 
Compound Microscope. 

3d, Of Cross-Section, with naked eye or low power ; 4th, 
with Compound Microscope. 

5th, Of Section lengthwise, with naked eye or low power ; 
6th, with Compound Microscope. 

C. Details: 

1. Write under the drawing natural size, reduced or magni- 

fied, according to fact, in the last case naming Micro- 
scope and Objective used. 

2. With the microscope make all drawings (within uniform 

circles 3J inches broad) the same proportion of the 
circle as of the field of view. 

3. Write at the side of the drawing any description neces- 

sary to indicate characters not expressed by the 
drawing. 

4. The note-book in which these drawings are entered 

should be brought whenever coming to laboratory- 
work, and should have each page headed with date 
and subject. 

VIII. Outline for Description Papers. 

The following is a sample of the 100 Descriptions to be 
entered in the Description Book (not considered a part of 
Laboratory Work, but done in part in regular class exercises 
and in part out of school) : 



26 

Name — Soapwort. 

Date . 

Root — Fibrous. 

Stem — Herb, 1 J°, swollen at nodes, smooth, slightly branched* 

Leaf — Opposite, sessile, oval-lanceolate, acute, entire, smooth, 

3-nerved. 
Flowers — In clusters, large, showy, pinkish. 
Sepals — 5, united in a tube nearly to the tips. 
Petals — 5, each with a slender claw and broad blade. 
Stamens — 10, white, anthers large. 

Pistils — 1, compound, styles two, stigma the inner surface. 
Ovary — 1, compound, 1 -celled. 
Seeds — Many, on an axial placenta. 
Fruit — Pod, 1-celled, opening at tip by about four valves. 
Order — CaryophyllaceaB. 

Sci. Name — Saponaria officinalis. Remarks — Common in 
sandy roadsides near Washington. 

Index. 

Four pages at the end of the Description Book should be 
filled in as an index, of which a sample line may be : 

Soapwort, Saponaria officinalis, Caryophyllacese, [page] 1. 

IX. Outlines for Observation Papers. 

Three papers, selected from the following lists, are required 
from each student during the year, to contain results of original 
observation only ; and see page 6. 

* Autumnal Series of Observation Papers. 

1. Leaves, Asymmetrical. 

a. Forms; b, comparison with symmetrical leaves in 
numbers, in development ; c, causes. 

2. Leaves, Different shapes on the same plant. 



27 

a. Differences enumerated; 6, their association with 
groups, soil, moisture, season of year, age of plant, 
cultivation ; c, their advantage ; d, their permanence. 

3. Leaves, Anastomosing veins in. 

a. Directions ; 6, association with special shapes, margins, 
groups ; c, veins of ferns. 

4. Leaves, Midribs of. 

a. Number present ; b, length ; c, form ; d, surface ; e, 
color ; /, interior. 

5. Leaves, Relation of veins to outline of. 

a. Examples of similarity ; 6, exceptions noted and ex- 
plained ; c, free veins but entire outlines ; d, anasto- 
mosing exterior veins, but margin not entire ; e, 
palmate veins in leaf not lobed ; /, irregularities of 
venation not accompanied by corresponding irregu- 
larity of leaf. 

6. Leaves, Skeleton leaf compared with skeleton plant. 

a. Comparison of angle of veins and branches ; 6, of vein- 
lets and twigs; c, apices; d, sessile ' eaves compared 
with low-branching trees ; e, with acaulescent plants ; 
/, does the leaf repeat the skeleton of the tree ? 

7. Leaves ; Color of veins in its relation to color of leaves. 

a. Difference from leaf; 6, difference of veins from each 
other ; c, on different surfaces ; d, association with 
special colors ; e, Avith groups of plants. 

8. Leaves, Lobes of. 

a. Variations ; 6, transitions to entire leaves ; c, to com- 
pound leaves. 

9. Leaves, Bases of. 

a. Association with venation ; b, special forms ; c, with 
petiolate and sessile leaves. 
10. Leaves, Apices of. 

a. Differences accompanying venation, lobation, family 



28 

grouping ; 6, possession of hair, spine, or tendril ; 
c, preference of leaf for special kind of apex ; d, 
advantages of it. 

11. Leaves, Margins of. 

a. Kinds ; 6, their association with groups ; c, differences 
on the same plant ; d, association with particular 
development of leaves ; e, smooth margins ; /, hairy 
margins ; q, margined petioles ; h, decurrence upon 
stem ; i, marginal colors. 

12. Leaves, Compound. 

a. Kinds found, most abundant ; 6, cases with margined 
petiole ; c, subordinate features ; d } stipules and 
stipels ; e, termination of leaf-stalk ; /, associations. 

13. Leaves, Permanence of. 

a. Examined in pine and other evergreens ; why perma- 
nent? 6, replacement due to what ? c, in grasses; d, 
in tropical plants ; e, assuciations. 

14. Leaves, Scars. 

a. Shape ; 6, variations ; c, cause ; d } elevation ; e, date ; 
/, color ; g, numbers ; h, surface ; i, dotted scars ; 
j y scars of sessile leaves. 

15. Leaves, Permanence of color after fall. 

a. Cases of permanence ; b, changes how, where, to what ? 
c, effect of moisture. 

16. Leaves, Variation in their color. 

a. Change uniform, through different leaves, different 
parts of the same leaf; b, gradual or sudden; c, 
complete, variegated or shaded ; d, development of 
changed color, whence, where greatest ; e, relation 
to succulence. 

17. Leaves, Change of color in Maples. 

a. Stages of color in the same leaf ; 6, comparison with 
other American trees, with European maples ; c, 



29 

variations of color in the different species ; d, in 
different leaves ; e, same leaf. 

18. Leaves, Failing of. 

a. Time; b, changes, external and internal ; c, experiment 
with petioles ; d, permanence of leaf. 

19. Leaves of Poplars. 

a. Comparison of shape, venation, surface, &c, of Abele, 
Carolina P., Balsam P. ; 6, contrasts. 

20. Leaves, Horizontal ity of. 

a. Object of direction of leaf; b, non-horizontal leaves 
in America ; in Australia ; c, effect produced. 

21. Leaves, Reversion to. 

a. Examples of complete and partial reversions of petals, 
of whole flower ; 6, reversions in Alder ; c, contrast 
with viviparous Junci and Scirpi ; d, morphology. 

22. Leaf Climbers. 

a. Distinctions ; b, mode ; c, effect on petiole ; d, kind of 
coil. 

23. Climbing Plants. 

a. Distinguished from twiners ; b, modes ; c, examples ; 

d, development. 

24. Morphology of Tendrils. 

a. Forms ; 6, morphological value, and accompanying 
differences ; c, coils and process of coiling. 

25. Twining Plants. 

a. Examples ; b, characters ; c, development of stem, 
compared with climbers ; d, sweep ©f stem, com- 
pared with tendrils ; e, irritation of stem ; /, com- 
parison with coil of leaf-climber. 

26. Hairs on Plants. 

a. Degree of development ; b, distribution of hairs and 
position ; c, characters ; d, association with groups ; 

e, use ; /, jointed hairs. 



30 

27. Viscid Hairs. 

a. Where found ; b, characters ; c, advantages to plant ; 
d, development ; e, duration of viscidity ; /, source. 

28. Stems, Creeping and Prostrate. 

a. Contrast; b, cause; c, examples; ^experiments to 
exchange. 

29. Flowers, Labiate. 

a. Stages of development ; b, forms assumed; c, associa- 
tion with families, with labiate calyces, with other 
irregularities; d, efficiency, association with un- 
equal stamens, causes. 

30. Late Apetalous Flowers. 

a. Examples ; b, differences from complete flowers ; c, 
difference in peduncle; a 7 , association with com- 
plete flowers ; e, efficiency. 

31. Seeds, Distribution by the Wind. 

a. Adaptation in shape ; b, appendages ; c, association 
with groups ; c£, effects, comparison with others in 
holding ground. 

32. Milky Juice of Plants. 

a. Examples ; b, special vessels ; c, characters ; d, use ; 
e, associations. 

33. Rhizomes. 

a. Description ; 6, uses ; c, conditions favoring ; d, effi- 
ciency ; e, associations. 

34. Bulbs. 

a. Characters ; b, sections ; c, object and uses ; d, asso- 
ciation with special groups, soils ; e, development, 
changes ; /, duration. 

35. Galls. 

a. Cause and purpose ; b, character ; c, examples ; d, 
double, hairy, simple and compound; e, shapes, 
colors, substance. 



31 

36. Protection of Buds by Position. 

a. Position under bark ; 6, in axil ; c, under petiole ; d, 
in wood ; e, comparison with related species ; /, 
comparative development. 

37. Seedling Plants. 

a. Change of growth, in time, direction, form, color, 
characters ; 6, comparative rapidity. 

38. Seedlings and Cuttings. 

a. Cuttings in development, production of roots, of 
buds; 6, comparison with seedlings; c, growth in 
ground, in water. 

39. Growth of Plants over Water. 

a. Different growths, rapidity ; 6. effect of changes of 
position, of sunlight ; c, form, color ; d, comparison 
with the same started in earth. 

40. Relation of Coleoptera to Vegetation. 

a. Examination of vegetable-feeding coleoptera by 
families; 6, depredations on stem, root, leaf, fruit 
flower ; c, summary. 

* * Winter Series of Observation Papers. 

1. Buds, Vernation of. 

a. Kinds, single and collective, with examples. 

2. Buds, Supernumerary. 

a. Examples ; 6, association with groups ; c, compari- 
son of members of a bud-cluster in position, form, 
size, function, development, structure ; d, compari- 
son of bud-clusters with solitary buds, on same 
plant, different plants. 

3. Buds, Terminal. 

a. Examples ; 6, form ; c, size ; d, function ; e, struc- 
ture ; /, protection. 

4. Buds, Adventitious. 



32 

a. In nature ; 6, developed in layering, cuttings, slips, 
pollarding; c, developed artificially from peach, 
beech maple, poplar ; d, from leaves, in nature, in 
propagation, in begonia, in peperoma; compare 
Primula Chinensis, Echeveria. 

5. Buds, Naked. 

a. Examples, their relationship; 6, characters; c, why 
no scales ? 

6. Buds, Dormant. 

a. Comparison of branches as to extent of simultaneous 
development of buds; b. proportionate extent; c, 
development of dormant buds systematic ? d y traces 
left by dormant buds ; e, probabilities of a bud be- 
coming dormant ; /, can such be made to grow ? 

7. Buds, Color of. 

a. Colors found ; b, relation of colors within and with- 
out ; c, compared with color of bark, wood, leaf, 
autumn leaf ; d> change of color. 

8. Buds, Scales of. 

a. Characters; 6, gradations between outer and inner; 
c, any scales within the leaves ; d, number of outer 
scales enclosing bud. 

9. Buds, Form of. 

a. General form ; 6, apex ; c, base ; d } divergence ; e, 
varying on same plant. 

10. Buds, Varnishes of. 

a. Characters ; 6, extent ; c, efficiency ; d ) consistency ; 
e, source. 

11. Buds, Protection by hairs. 

a. Characters ; 6, difference from other hairs on same 
plant ; c, efficiency. 

12. Buds, Protection by position. 

a. By covering ; 6, by angle taken ; c, by simple posi- 



33 

tion in axil ; d, development at time axillary position 
ceases to protect ; at time coverings cease to protect. 

13. Buds, Phyllotaxy of. 

a. Examples ; 6, exceptions. 

14. Stems, Creeping and prostrate. 

a. Examination repeated from Series I, No. 28 ; b, why 
should one be produced and not the other ? c, white 
clover, Mitchella. 

15. Spines, Morphology of. 

a Examples, their relationship ; stages of development ; 
6, morphological value ; c, compound thorns ; c/, cir- 
cumstances favoring development. 

16. Prickles, Morphology of. 

a. Examples, their relationship ; 6, characters ; c, use ; 
d, morphological value ; e, circumstances favoring or 
retarding. 

17. Tubers, Morphology of. 

a. Examples ; 6, characters ; c, use ; d, morphological 
value; e, circumstances influencing; /, phyllotaxy, 
scales, eyes. 

18. Bark. 

a. Comparison of trees ; b, shaggy and smooth bark ; c, 
lines of cleavage; d, how ruptured ; e, bark of peren- 
nial plants ; /, of annuals ; g, corky layer, in gum, in 
ordinary trees ; other layers. 

19. Specks on Branches. 

a. Characters; b, symmetrical arrangement; c, change 
with age ; d, cause ; e, branches without them. 

20. Brittle Branches. 

a. Comparison, leather wood, oak, willow ; examples ? 
b, compared "with other parts of same branch ; why 
not brittle throughout ? c, why not in related species ; 
d, object : e, relation to bud. 



34 

21. Transverse Sections. 

a. Comparison of exogens and endogens in general ; b, of 
medullary rays ; c, of varying rings; d } of develop- 
ment of bark layers; e, of development of heart- 
wood and sap-wood. 

22. Longitudinal Sections. 

a. Comparison of exogens and endogens ; b, trace knots ; 
causes ; buried knots ; c, examine medullary rays. 

23. Heliotropism. 

a. Positive; degree; b, variations peculiar to different 
plants; c, to different lights; d } cause; e, negative; 
examine tendrils of grape, Virginia creeper ; /, aerial 
roots. 

24. Winter Growth. 

a. Examine buds, &c. ; b, note influence of warm days ; 

c. ascertain formation of buds for early spring flowers ; 

d, development of mosses, hepatica?, and algae. 

25. Development of Buds. 

a. Experiment with water, warmth, light ; b, compare 
with natural action ; c, artificial change of blossom- 
ing-time, of leafage. 

26. Hairs found in ^inter. 

a. Position ; b, use ; c, characters ; d, hairs developed 
with the winter ; e, hairs disappearing with winter ; 
/, permanence. 

27. Persistent Leaves. 

a. Evergreens, trees, shrubs, vines, herbs ; characters ; 
related species not evergreens ; 6, dead leaves per- 
sistent ; cause ; c, leaves late in dying. 

28. Roots grown in Water. 

a. Characters; b, differences from similar root grown in 
earth ; c, fibrils ; d, root-caps. 

29. Scars. (See Series I, No. 14.) 



35 

30. Growth of Plants in Water. (See Series I, No. 39.) 

31. Growth of Seedling Acorns and Horse-Chestnut. (See 

Series I, No. 37.) 

32. Growth of Seedling Maples. (See Series I. No. 37.) 

33. Winged Fruit. 

a. Characters ; examples with one wing ; confluent wings ; 
two separate wings ; b, use ; c, related fruit without 
wings. 

34. Permanence of Berries. 

a. Examples found in winter ; 6, difference from summer 
berries ; c, structure ; d, persistence ; e, dissemination 
of seed ; value. 

35. Acorns. 

a. Differences in form, structure, cup ; 6, embryos ; c, de- 
velopment. 

36. Nuts and their growth. 

a. Examples ; b, ripening ; c, dissemination of seed ; d, 
development. 

37. Seeds working into the ground. 

a. Into sand ; 6, through cavities in soil ; c, by weight ; 
d, by shape ; e, by boring ; /, any other mode of self- 
burial? g, awned seeds working to the ground. 

38. Morphology of the Apple, Pear and Orange. 

a. Development of ovary ; b, calyx ; c, receptacles. 

39. Morphology of Capsules in the Laboratory. 

a. Examples ; b, classification ; c, characters ; d, structure. 

40. Fertilization of Cultivated Flowers. 

a. Examine position of organs ; b, what cultivated flowers 
produce seed ; how are their organs placed? how is 
fertilization accomplished ? c, artificial means. 



36 



* * * Spring Series of Observation Papers. 

1. Runners. 

a. Characters ; b, variations in same species; in same in- 
dividual ; c, trace development. 

2. Twining of Stems. 

a. Twining only one way ; examples ; exceptions ; b. de- 
gree of curve ; where, when and how developed ; 
c, sweep of tip ; when active, what radius, in how 
many internodes ? d, effect of irritation ; e, action on 
reaching object ; /, reversing the sweep. 

3. Twining of Tendrils. 

a, Sweep examined ; radius, direction, continuation ; 
6, effect of irritation ; c, preference for support ; c?, 
influence of warmth, cold, light, darkness. 

4. Glaucous Surfaces. 

a. Parts of plant so affected ; b, extent, color, depth, sub- 
stance, permanence ; c, use ; cause ; d, associations. 

5. Bulb and Stem of Addertongue. 

a. Collect and rear ; b, trace development of bulb ; c, 
characters ; d, permanence ; e, compare with other 
bulbs. , 

6. Heliotropism in Nature. 

a. Compare garden plants and wild plants ; shaded trees ; 

b, plants in cellars and shade compared with same in 
light ; c, note sunflowers, &c, for diurnal heliotrop- 
ism. 

7. Comparison of Stipules. 

a. Form, size, color; 6, confluent stipules; c, stipules of 
Grasses, Polygonum. 

8. Development of Stipules. 

a. Trace from the beginning ; b, morphological value ; 

c, replacements. 



37 

9. Petiole Bases. 

a. Forms ; b, enlargements affecting stem ; c, decurrent 
enlargements ; d, substance ; e, uses ; /, development 
of base. 

10. Leaf Substance. 

a. Variable thickness in the same plant ; b y in different 
plants; c, different species: d, its cause; e, its use. 

11. Leaf Forms, Design of. 

a. Aquatic leaves, filiform, floating ; b, wind-beaten, 
small, acicular ; c, variation with situation : d, vari- 
ation in new circumstances. 

12. Haustoria. 

a. Where and how developed, from what substance, into 
what substance of foster-plant ? 6, do internal tissues 
enter foster plant ? c, use. 

13. Viscid Hairs. (See Series I, No. 27.) 

14. Viscid Floral and Folial Organs. 

a. Comparison of relative frequency ; b, difference of 
structure ; of use. 

15. Eeceptacles. 

a. Adaptation to use ; modifications ; 6, proof of the 
flower as a branch ; c, characters, dry, fleshy, pro- 
longed, with disks. 

16. Flower— Buds. 

(/. Aestivation ; b, folding of single piece ; c, develop- 
ment ; cZ, form, color, compared with flower. 

17. Flower — Development. 

a. Successive stages ; unfolding bud ; 6, influence of heat, 
light, moisture, irritation, applications to hasten or 
retard ; c, uniform, rapid, sudden developments, du- 
ration, persistence. 

18. Flowers. Double. 



38 

a. Developed by culture ; 6, otherwise ; c, influences ; 
c£, modifications ; e, value. 

19. Flowers, Dimorphous. 

a. In stamens ; b, in pistils ; c. compare sassafras, Mitch - 
eila, Houstonia ; examine Bouvardia, Polyanthus, 
Auricula; investigate Sauguinaria. 

20. Flowers, Eepeated Opening of. 

a. Examples ; examine Dandelion, Oxalis, Evening 
Primrose; 6, associated characters. 

21. Flowers, Keversion in. (See Series I, No. 21, and inves- 

tigate Virescence.) 

22. Flowers, Nodding. 

a. Examples; b, degree; c, character of peduncle; d, 
arrangement for fertilization ; e, nodding of any ad- 
vantage ? /, transient nutation, in epilobium. 

23. Flowers, Spurred. 

a. Examples ; b, number of spurs ; c, character of spur 
in form, size, surface, position, prominence ; presence 
of glands ; honey ; accessibility. 

24. Flowers, Albinism in. 

a. Examples ; families destitute of; families predisposed ; 

b, any attendant changes ; c, examine Orchids, La- 
biates, Composites, Epilobium, Pontederia. 

25. Flowers Imitated by Insects. 

a. Examine all insects making homes in flowers ; thrips, 
etc. ; b, similarity in color ? c, other respects ? d, in 
any other insects ; their habits. 

26. Flowers of Mixed Inflorescence. 

a. Variation at different times; b, in different branches; 

c, variation constant ; rf, doubtful inflorescence. 

27. Flowers Cleistogamous. 

a. Compare open flowers of Ilysanthes, Epiphegus, Viola, 



39 

Oxalis, Polygala, etc. ; b, proportion seeding ; c, how 
fertilized ? 

28. Fiowers Changing Angle. 

a. Examine Willow-herb ; b, any others changing angle ; 
mode ; c, change of angle at fruiting ; d, object ; e, 
mode ; examine Acer, Monotropa. 

29. Flowers Changing Color. 

a. Examples ; b, order of changes ; c, before and after 
fading; examine Boraginacese, Trillium, Cobasa, 
Lantana, Virginia Stock. 

30. Flowers, Prolifi cation in. 

a. Bearing a new stalk and flowers or leaves ; examine 
Mitchella; b, or new flower; examine Polyanthus; 
c, how developed ; why not made double by cultiva- 
tion? d, examination of Narcissus, Scrophulariaceae* 
Erigeron strigosum ; e, contrasts of color and form. 

31. Flowers; Indications of Nectar. 

a. Relation to bright colors ; to dull ; 6, to fragrance ; c, 
to ill smell ; d, union of color and fragrance with 
nectar ; without nectar. 

32. Flowers ; Position of Nectar. 

a. Examine Buttercups, Peony, Caltha ; 6, is position 
always that of secretion ? c, compare Clovers, Honey- 
suckles. 

33. Flowers and Humming Birds. 

a. Note all flowers so visited, examine after visits, com- 
pare with the un visited ; b, effect of visit, reason of 
choice ; c, examine Fuchsia, Impatiens fulva, Trum- 
pet creeper. 

34. Flowers, Fertilization of Epigsea. 

a. Position of organs ; b, probable fertilization ; c, visited 
by what insects ? d, what action of insects observed ? 
influence. 



40 

35. Flowers, Fertilization of Rosacea?. 

a. General flower structure ; 6, adaptation to self-fertili- 
zation, to insect fertilization; c, visits of what insects 
noted ; action seen. 

36. Flowers, Proterandrous. 

a. Coincidence of maturity of stamens and pistils in 
same flower; b, stamens first ripe; c. pistils first 
ripe ; d, ripeness partial or complete in head or 
spike ; compare Umbel life ra?. 

37. Flowers ; Escape of Pollen. 

a. Dehiscent anthers, pores, rupturing ; b, what escape 
from Composite, Lobelia? Orchids compared. 

38. Flowers ; Pollen dispersed by the wind. 

a. Examine pines and other conifers; 6, any other ex- 
amples? c, adaptations for this; d, efficiency. 

39. Flowers, Manner of Insects when among. 

a. How does the insect light, how get in, out ? b, where ? 
where beginning and ending in a cluster ; c, inju- 
ries to flowers ; accidental, by gnawing in (exam- 
ine bumblebee in Pedicularis ; Labiates}, rup- 
turing, displacing parts beyond elastic recovery. 

40. Flowers and Ants. 

a. Examples of ants in flowers ; on stems ; 6, if not on 
both, in same plant, or different, why not ; c, why 
undesirable visitors ? d, how repelled ? 

X. Directions to the Student. — How to Make an 
Excursion Profitable. 

1 . Collect toward your Observation Paper. 

Start out with the purpose of looking for some definite 
class of objects. For instance, if your topic is " Compound 
Leaves/' notice every plant, shrub or tree, to see if in any 
part it exhibits the form of leaf sought or an approach to it. 



41 

Look over the printed headings of your Observation Paper 
topic before starting. 

Be prepared to take specimens of the particular kind 
sought. 

2. Collect for the Herbarium. 

The herbarium specimens of a small plant should exhibit 
it entire, including the roots. 

For a shrub or tree, take a branch showing arrangement of 
leaves, flowers and fruit, twelve to sixteen inches in length. 

A complete series of specimens in the herbarium to repre- 
sent any one of the plants of the District, should show the — 
Root. 

Stem (with prostrate or underground stem, if any). 
Mode of branching. 

Leaves, at the base, middle and top of the stem. 
Under surface of the leaves. 
Buds of the leaves and flowers. 
Arrangement of the flowers. 
Flowers, expanded, and by side view. 
Fruit. 
Sometimes a single specimen can be obtained which will 
show several of these features at once. 

Plants collected for the herbarium should be pressed in a 
book or port-folio while in the field. 

3. To collect flowers to be examined afterward or for the 
class, do not press them, but wrap securely from the air in 
several thicknesses of newspaper ; not too tightly ; dampen- 
ing the flowers a very little. 

4. Count the different kinds of plants and trees you find in 
blossom, and report the number. 

5. Bring in any conspicuous or interesting fruits, buds, or 
other plant specimens, as well as flowers, to be exhibited, 
named, and preserved. 



42 

6. Notice the habits of the plants you see ; the soil and 
situation in which they grow ; the neighbor plants with which 
they are associated ; and the way they are affected by shade, 
moisture, and the contrary. 

7. Take with you a small note-book or a slip of paper on 
which to record observations made. Preserve these for future 
use and comparison. 

8. Cultivate the habit of noticing and recording the day 
each year when you first see each species in bloom, or with 
expanded leaves, or with ripe fruit, or with leaves falling. 



XI. Outline of the Year's Work. 
Shovjing succession and approximate duration of subjects. 

Fale Term — September to November. 

Class Work ; Systematic Botany ; comparison, description and 

analysis of flowering plants 
( including types of twenty 
leading orders ). 

Laboratory Work ; Manipulation; Herbarium Work (collect- 
ing, pressing and drying, 
poisoning, mounting, la- 
belling, classifying). 

Outside Work ; Excursions : 

Development Studies ; Seeds and their germ- 
ination. 

Observation Paper; involving conclusions 

from observations on 
a given topic. 



43 



Winter Term — December to February. 

Class Work ; Structural Botany ; from laboratory collections 

and Gray's Lessons, with 
lectures and preparation 
of a Summary of Organs. 

Laboratory Work ; Manipulation ; Use of the Microscope. 

Outside Work ; Studies at Botanic Gardens. 
Development Studies ; Buds. 
Observation Paper. 

Spring Term — February to April. 

Class Work ; Histological Botany ; protoplasm ; the cell, 

growth ; tissues (with 
lectures). 
Cryptogamic Botany; Yeast, Bacteria, Diatoms ; 
Algae; Fungi, Lichens; 
Hepatics, Mosses; Ferns, 
Club-mosses; Equiseta; 
with Conifers and Cy- 
cads; from the objects; 
with lectures. 
Laboratory Work ; Histological Studies. 

Outside Work; Studies at Botanic Gardens. 

Development Studies ; Leaves. 

Botanical Literature; involving use of scien- 
tific books and peri- 
odicals in the labor- 
atory; with reports 
on their character, 
and on current bo- 
tanical news. 



44 

Summer Term — April to June. 
Class Work ; Systematic Botany. 

Generalizations of Botany ; lectures. 
Laboratory Work ; Drawings ; to show flower-structure, es- 
pecially adaptations to fer- 
tilization. 
Outside Work ; Excursions. 

Development Studies ; Flowers. 
Observation Paper. 



WASHINGTON HIGH SCHOOL. ^ 



GUIDE I 



TO THE STUDENT IN 



1 

BOTANY. 

1 
- ' 1 



By EDWARD S.- BURGESS, A. M., 

Instructor in Charge. 



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